Federal Agency Decisions

Workplace-safety cases from the Occupational Safety and Health Review Commission (OSHRC), mine-safety cases from the Federal Mine Safety and Health Review Commission (FMSHRC), and environmental appeals from the EPA's Environmental Appeals Board, each with a plain-English summary, the standards it cites, and whether it counts as precedent. More agencies are coming.

14,272 decisions and counting · Latest decision August 26, 2026
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ALJ

Quarto Mining Company

Respirable-dust settlement approved

Quarto Mining Company was cited for excessive respirable dust at the Powhatan No. 4 Mine. Judge James A. Broderick approved a settlement reducing the proposed penalty from $1,000 to $450. The decision states that the operator was revising its dust-control plan and that the revised plan had reduced…

November 6, 1986 ·James A. Broderick ·FMSHRC
Settled
ALJ

Quarto Mining Company

Settlement approved for two mine-safety violations

Quarto Mining Company was cited for excessive respirable dust at a designated occupation and loose coal along a belt conveyor at the Powhatan No. 4 Mine. Judge James A. Broderick approved the parties' settlement, which reduced the proposed penalties from $2,850 to $1,324. The settlement amount…

November 6, 1986 ·James A. Broderick ·FMSHRC
Settled
ALJ

Quarto Mining Company

Respirable-dust settlement approved

Quarto Mining Company was cited twice after respirable-dust samples exceeded the applicable limit for two designated occupations at the Powhatan No. 4 mine. The violations were originally assessed at $2,700. The parties proposed an $800 settlement because Quarto was revising its dust-control plan…

November 6, 1986 ·James A. Broderick ·FMSHRC
Settled
ALJ

Alamo Cement Company

Temporary reinstatement ordered in discrimination case

Yale E. Hennessee alleged that Alamo Cement discharged him after he refused to remove a burned-out motor from a clinker dome because the access ramp was covered with clinker and unsafe to traverse. Judge George A. Koutras found that the evidence raised a viable question about whether Hennessee's…

November 6, 1986 ·George A. Koutras ·FMSHRC
Procedural
COMM

Cathedral Bluffs Shale Oil

Independent-contractor liability remanded

This civil-penalty case returned to the Commission after the D.C. Circuit reversed an earlier Commission decision involving a mandatory safety violation committed by Cathedral Bluffs' independent contractor. The court held that the Commission had improperly treated the Secretary's enforcement…

November 5, 1986 ·FMSHRC
Remanded
ALJ

Sanders Construction, Inc.

Four citations affirmed and one vacated

Sanders Construction, Inc. faced five citations at the Gilbert Mine #1 in connection with violations of mandatory mine-safety standards. After a hearing began, the parties reached a settlement. Judge John J. Morris approved the settlement, affirmed four citations under 30 C.F.R. §§ 56.6047 and…

October 31, 1986 ·John J. Morris ·FMSHRC
Mixed result
ALJ

Samoyed Energy Company, Inc.

Discrimination complaint dismissed

Tony Wiley alleged that Samoyed Energy Company discharged him in retaliation for reporting dangerous mine conditions. Judge Gary Melick found that Wiley made protected safety complaints, including complaints about road conditions, a gas line, and inadequate bulldozer heat, but found no sufficient…

October 24, 1986 ·Gary Melick ·FMSHRC
Procedural
ALJ

Cannelton Industries, Inc.

Part 90 pay protection violation found

Cannelton Industries transferred Part 90 miner John W. Bushnell from dispatcher to general inside laborer, changed his occupation code, and reduced his hourly pay from $113.28 to $104.78. Judge William Fauver held that the Part 90 pay-protection rule required the company to retain Bushnell's…

October 21, 1986 ·William Fauver ·FMSHRC
Citations affirmed
ALJ

Helvetia Coal Company

Methane and oxygen settlement approved

Helvetia Coal Company was cited twice under 30 C.F.R. § 75.301, once for excessive methane and once for inadequate oxygen at the Lucerne No. 6 mine. The violations were originally assessed at $750 each, for $1,500 total, and the parties proposed settling them for $425 each, or $850 total. The…

October 21, 1986 ·Paul Merlin ·FMSHRC
Settled
ALJ

River Cement Company

Late penalty petition dismissed

River Cement Company moved to dismiss the Secretary's civil-penalty petition as untimely. Judge John J. Morris found that the Secretary filed the petition seven days after the 45-day deadline in Commission Rule 27(a), and that the Secretary's explanations of inadvertence and multiple responses did…

October 20, 1986 ·John J. Morris ·FMSHRC
Procedural
ALJ

River Cement Company

Two late penalty petitions dismissed

River Cement Company moved to dismiss two civil-penalty petitions as untimely. Judge John J. Morris found that the Secretary filed both petitions 23 days after the 45-day deadline in Commission Rule 27(a), and that a change in processing policy and reliance on an internal date stamp did not…

October 20, 1986 ·John J. Morris ·FMSHRC
Procedural
ALJ

Reco, Inc.

Discrimination complaints dismissed

Brothers Dillard and Lonnie Smith worked for Reco, Inc. servicing mine batteries, including in underground coal mines. They refused an assignment to work underground because Dillard's required training had expired and Lonnie had not received underground training, and their foreman told each to…

October 17, 1986 ·James A. Broderick ·FMSHRC
Procedural
ALJ

Consolidation Coal Company

Retaliatory reprimand for equipment tag-out found

DuWayne Schafer, a heavy-equipment operator at the Glenharold Mine, tagged out a motor grader twice because its brakes were slow to engage and the machine was being used on an inclined roadway near a drop-off. Judge Michael A. Lasher, Jr. found that Schafer acted reasonably and in good faith in…

October 17, 1986 ·Michael A. Lasher, Jr. ·FMSHRC
Citations affirmed
ALJ

Bethenergy Mines, Inc.

Contest withdrawal granted

Bethenergy Mines, Inc. asked to withdraw its contest of Citation No. 2695988, issued on August 20, 1986, at Livingston Portal 84. Judge Gary Melick granted permission under 29 C.F.R. § 2700.11 and dismissed the contest proceeding. The order does not decide the underlying citation's merits.

October 16, 1986 ·Gary Melick ·FMSHRC
Procedural
ALJ

Greenwich Collieries, Division of Pennsylvania Mines Corporation

Ventilation order vacated

MSHA cited Greenwich Collieries after an inspector concluded that air was moving contrary to the ventilation plan in the D-9 area of the Greenwich No. 1 Mine, where a methane accumulation had previously occurred. The citation was modified to a section 104(d)(2) unwarrantable-failure order under 30…

October 16, 1986 ·George A. Koutras ·FMSHRC
Citations vacated
ALJ

Amax Chemical Corporation

Settlement approved and stay lifted

Amax Chemical Corporation faced two civil-penalty proceedings in which the parties proposed reducing the penalties from $2,925 to $445. After hearings on the merits and a later Commission decision involving Amax, the parties renewed their settlement request. Judge Gary Melick approved the…

October 16, 1986 ·Gary Melick ·FMSHRC
Settled
COMM

J.L. Foti Construction Company

Scaffold-block issue remanded for stability finding

J.L. Foti Construction Company, a masonry contractor, used concrete blocks as part of the support for a scaffold at a wastewater-treatment-plant project. Following a Sixth Circuit decision, the Commission remanded the alleged violation of 29 C.F.R. § 1926.451(a)(2) to the administrative law judge…

October 16, 1986 ·OSHRC
Remanded
COMM

Fife Rock Products Company, Incorporated

Default decision vacated and remanded

Fife Rock Products failed to attend a scheduled hearing, and the ALJ entered a default decision affirming a citation under 30 C.F.R. § 56.5-7 and assessing a $600 penalty. Fife later said it had not received the hearing notice and asked for a stay and rehearing. The Commission treated the request…

October 14, 1986 ·FMSHRC
Remanded
COMM

William B. Hopke Company, Inc.

Attorney-fee award affirmed for flagman citation

William B. Hopke Company sought attorney's fees under the Equal Access to Justice Act after prevailing against flagman and trench-box citations. The Commission held that the Secretary was not substantially justified in pursuing the flagman citation because the incorporated ANSI provision used…

October 10, 1986 ·OSHRC
Procedural
ALJ

Brubaker-Mann Incorporated

Magazine-area citation affirmed with $15 penalty

Brubaker-Mann Incorporated operated a small business subject to the Mine Act. An inspector found two pieces of lumber within six feet of a powder magazine and several hundred railroad ties within 20 feet. Judge John J. Morris found that the railroad ties were unnecessary combustible material under…

October 9, 1986 ·John J. Morris ·FMSHRC
Modified
ALJ

Dennis Ayres v. Fairpoint Coal Company

Discrimination complaint dismissed after settlement

Dennis Ayres alleged that Fairpoint Coal Company discharged him after he raised concerns about unsafe equipment. He testified about a highwall incident involving a dozer and a problem with its reverse gear, along with his dispute with mine management. The parties reached a settlement during the…

October 9, 1986 ·George A. Koutras ·FMSHRC
Settled
COMM

U.S. Steel Corporation, Eastern Steel Division & Its Successors

Willful citation withdrawn after review

An administrative law judge had affirmed a willful citation against U.S. Steel under 29 C.F.R. § 1910.179(l)(3). The Commission granted review and later requested briefs. Although the Secretary continued to believe the judge was correct, he withdrew the citation after reviewing the record and…

October 7, 1986 ·OSHRC
Citations vacated
COMM

United Parcel Service

Footwear abatement issue remanded for hearing

United Parcel Service had withdrawn its contest to a citation alleging that workers handling heavy parcels needed foot protection under 29 C.F.R. §§ 1910.132(a) and 1910.136. After a later inspection, OSHA issued a failure-to-abate notification because the employees were not wearing safety shoes…

October 7, 1986 ·OSHRC
Remanded
COMM

City Oil Well Service Co.

Respirator violations affirmed after hydrogen sulfide exposure

Two City Oil Well Service employees died during swabbing work at an oil well where later testing found hydrogen sulfide at 225 parts per million. City relied on well operators to identify hydrogen-sulfide hazards and provide respirators, and it had no respiratory-protection program of its own. The…

September 30, 1986 ·OSHRC
Citations affirmed
COMM

Martin Wright Electric Company

Serious citation withdrawn in approved settlement

OSHA cited Martin Wright Electric for a serious guardrail violation with a proposed $250 penalty and a nonserious electrical violation with no proposed penalty. The judge affirmed the guardrail item but reduced its penalty to $75, and vacated the electrical item. During Commission review, the…

September 15, 1986 ·OSHRC
Settled
COMM

CF&I Steel Corporation

Most coke-oven items vacated

OSHA cited CF&I Steel over regulated areas, respirator practices, smoking, and training at its Pueblo coke-oven facility. The Commission held that the undefined term "battery ends" meant the outer pinion walls as understood in the coke-oven industry, so facilities and machinery beyond those walls…

September 12, 1986 ·OSHRC
Mixed result
COMM

Williams Enterprises of Georgia, Inc.

Safety-net and floor-opening items vacated

Williams Enterprises was the steel-erection subcontractor on a high-rise construction project in Atlanta. In this 1986 decision, the Commission held that the steel-erection rules displaced the general safety-net standard and vacated the exterior-fall allegations under 29 C.F.R. §§ 1926.105(a) and…

September 12, 1986 ·OSHRC
Mixed result
COMM

Spartan Rigging Corporation & Atlantic Rigging Corporation

Safety-belt citations withdrawn

OSHA cited Spartan Rigging and Atlantic Rigging for allegedly failing to require employees dismantling scaffolds to wear tied-off safety belts. An administrative law judge affirmed the serious citations under 29 C.F.R. § 1926.28(a), and the employers obtained Commission review. After further…

September 3, 1986 ·OSHRC
Mixed result
COMM

Salem-Gravure Division of World Color Press, Inc.

Trade-secret inspection order vacated

OSHA cited Salem-Gravure under the general duty clause for alleged repetitive-motion hazards in its bindery department. During discovery, the Secretary sought to have a private consultant inspect areas containing trade secrets. The Commission held that its own protective order did not provide…

September 3, 1986 ·OSHRC
Remanded
COMM

Pav-Saver Manufacturing Company

Oral contest accepted and case remanded

OSHA issued Pav-Saver serious and nonserious citations with $3,820 in proposed penalties. During the contest period, company representatives attended an informal conference, explained their abatement measures, and believed OSHA's approval meant the citations would be dismissed. Pav-Saver did not…

August 28, 1986 ·OSHRC
Remanded
COMM

Barretto Granite Corporation

Citations vacated after oral contest accepted

Barretto Granite orally disputed OSHA's citation and $240 proposed penalty at an informal conference held within the 15-working-day contest period, then sent written confirmation after the deadline. The Commission held that the company reasonably believed the conference and follow-up letter…

August 28, 1986 ·OSHRC
Citations vacated
COMM

FMC Corporation

Nitrogen-trichloride hazard items vacated

FMC produced chlorine at a West Virginia plant where nitrogen trichloride was present in a waste stream handled through heated tanks and transfer piping. An employee died when an explosion occurred in a transfer line and tank during the neutralization process. OSHA issued two general-duty citations…

August 28, 1986 ·OSHRC
Citations vacated
COMM

Elmer Construction Corporation

Late contest accepted after filing confusion

OSHA issued Elmer Construction a citation alleging two serious violations and proposing a $320 penalty. Elmer paid the penalty, but its newly hired attorney called OSHA seeking to contest the citation while the 15-working-day filing period was still open. Because neither the attorney nor the OSHA…

August 28, 1986 ·OSHRC
Remanded
COMM

Synkote Paint Company, KDK Upset Forging Company

Citations affirmed despite warrant challenges

Synkote Paint and KDK Upset Forging challenged programmed-inspection warrants as broader than the administrative plans used to establish probable cause. Each company stipulated that it had committed the cited violations while preserving its warrant and suppression arguments. The Commission read…

August 27, 1986 ·OSHRC
Citations affirmed
COMM

Pennsylvania Steel Foundry & Machine Company

Foundry settlement enforced and machine items split

OSHA's inspection of Pennsylvania Steel Foundry produced citations alleging 298 violations. The Commission declined to suppress the inspection evidence, holding that the later rule against ex parte warrants did not apply retroactively and that suppression would provide little deterrent value under…

August 27, 1986 ·OSHRC
Mixed result
COMM

Engle, Inc.

Scaffold citation settled without penalty

OSHA cited Engle, a construction company, for one serious violation of 29 C.F.R. § 1926.451(e)(8) and proposed a $240 penalty. An administrative law judge affirmed the citation and assessed $150, after which the Commission granted review. In the settlement, the Secretary reclassified the citation…

August 25, 1986 ·OSHRC
Settled
COMM

Aerlex Corporation

Settlement approval set aside for withdrawal hearing

Aerlex agreed to withdraw its contest to citations and $58,000 in proposed penalties after an explosion reportedly destroyed its business. The company stated that it had a defense but lacked the income and resources to continue litigating. After counsel reappeared, Aerlex moved to withdraw from the…

August 19, 1986 ·OSHRC
Remanded
COMM

Cerro Copper Products Company

Suppression orders vacated after court reversal

A Commission judge had invalidated two OSHA inspection warrants and suppressed the evidence gathered under them, causing most citation items to be vacated. The Seventh Circuit reversed those portions of the judge's orders and directed the Commission to approve the safety and health warrants. The…

August 8, 1986 ·OSHRC
Remanded
COMM

Robert Aaron Greenberg, Esquire, and The Law Firm of Tomar, Parks, Seliger, Simonoff & Adourian

Disciplinary proceeding closed without findings

The Commission received an apology from attorney Robert Aaron Greenberg and his law firm concerning the circumstances that led to a disciplinary proceeding. They also assured the Commission that they would use their best efforts to follow Commission rules and orders in the future. Because the…

August 6, 1986 ·OSHRC
Procedural
COMM

Heaton Erecting, Inc.

Mobile-scaffold guardrail issue remanded

OSHA alleged that Heaton Erecting violated the mobile-scaffold guardrail standard because an unguarded scaffold was more than 40 feet above the ground. The judge vacated the item because the scaffold platform was only 50 to 70 inches above its base and relied on a Commission interpretation that was…

July 31, 1986 ·OSHRC
Remanded
COMM

Dun-Par Engineered Form Company

Unguarded-floor citation affirmed

A Dun-Par employee died after falling 131 feet from an unguarded eleventh-floor perimeter while banding stacks of lumber. The Commission held that the employee was exposed to a fall hazard while working 2 to 3.5 feet from the edge and that the foreman knew or should have known the assigned work…

July 30, 1986 ·OSHRC
Citations affirmed
COMM

Inland Steel Company

Railcar safety citation vacated

An Inland Steel switchman died while attempting to couple two groups of railcars at the company's large internal railroad operation. OSHA alleged a willful general-duty violation because Inland's cars lacked handbrakes and because its program for defective railcars and coupling work was inadequate…

July 30, 1986 ·OSHRC
Citations vacated
COMM

Dun-Par Engineered Form Company

Fall-protection citation vacated as infeasible

Dun-Par employees performed concrete formwork on unguarded upper floors of an eleven-story construction project. The Commission replaced its strict impossibility defense with an infeasibility defense that considers the practical realities of the workplace. It held that Dun-Par proved perimeter…

July 30, 1986 ·OSHRC
Citations vacated
COMM

Kastalon, Inc. and Conap, Inc.

MOCA exposure citations vacated

Kastalon and Conap used MOCA, a chemical shown to cause cancer in laboratory animals, to manufacture polyurethane products. OSHA alleged general-duty violations at both companies and personal-protective-equipment and respirator violations at Conap. The Commission held that OSHA had to prove a…

July 23, 1986 ·OSHRC
Citations vacated
COMM

John R. Jurgensen Company

Repeated trenching violation affirmed

Jurgensen was installing a drain line beside an older pipeline when part of an unshored trench wall collapsed on an employee. The Commission found the wall unstable because the new trench intersected backfill and gravel from the earlier excavation, and Jurgensen did not prove that the old fill had…

July 21, 1986 ·OSHRC
Citations affirmed
COMM

Bemis Manufacturing Company

Nuisance-dust citation withdrawn with prejudice

The Secretary moved to withdraw a citation alleging that Bemis Manufacturing violated the nuisance-dust limit in 29 C.F.R. § 1910.1000. The Commission granted the withdrawal with prejudice. The official release provides no additional factual or penalty details.

July 8, 1986 ·OSHRC
Citations vacated
COMM

Con Agra, Inc.

Citation withdrawn with prejudice

The Secretary moved to withdraw the citation against Con Agra. The Commission granted the withdrawal with prejudice. The official release does not identify the cited standard, facts, or proposed penalty.

July 7, 1986 ·OSHRC
Citations vacated
COMM

Monarch Water Systems, Inc.

Paint-ignition item remanded

Monarch employees sprayed flammable paint inside a tank while a blower and hand lamp were positioned within 50 feet. The judge vacated the flammable-liquid item based partly on ventilation and the employees' failure to follow company instructions. The Commission held that the cited standard…

July 7, 1986 ·OSHRC
Mixed result
COMM

Amax Lead Company of Missouri

Medical-removal pay citations vacated

Amax Lead, Schuylkill Metals, and St. Joe Resources transferred employees from high-lead jobs under the lead standard's medical-removal provisions. They continued each employee's regular hourly rate for a 40-hour week but did not pay potential overtime, production bonuses, shift differentials, or…

June 25, 1986 ·OSHRC
Citations vacated
COMM

Amoco Chemicals Corporation

Illness-recording and medical-notice items vacated

OSHA alleged that Amoco willfully failed to record asbestos-related illnesses and failed to tell an employee about a potentially serious pleural condition. The Commission held that the record did not prove Amoco had enough information and expertise at the relevant time to reasonably diagnose the…

June 19, 1986 ·OSHRC
Citations vacated
COMM

K.D.K. Upset Forging, Inc.

Attorney-fee entitlement recognized after withdrawal

OSHA cited K.D.K. for failing to post the required employee notice, then withdrew the citation before hearing. K.D.K. applied for $600 in attorney's fees under the Equal Access to Justice Act. The Commission held that K.D.K. was the prevailing party because withdrawal gave it the principal relief…

June 10, 1986 ·OSHRC
Procedural
COMM

Pelron Corporation

Ethylene-oxide training citation vacated

An explosion in Pelron's pilot chemical reactor killed one employee and seriously injured another during an experimental ethylene-oxide process. OSHA alleged that Pelron's employee training did not adequately prevent ethylene-oxide explosions. The Commission held that the hazard had to be defined…

June 3, 1986 ·OSHRC
Citations vacated
ALJ

Dorothy Mae Coal Co., Inc.

Default penalties assessed at $7,260

Dorothy Mae Coal Co., Inc. failed to answer MSHA interrogatories after an order compelling responses. It also failed to explain the noncompliance or respond to the Secretary's motion for default judgment. Judge Roy J. Maurer deemed the company to have waived its right to a hearing and made the…

May 30, 1986 ·Roy J. Maurer ·FMSHRC
Procedural
ALJ

Helen Mining Company

Methane orders split, with $1,500 penalty

Helen Mining Company operated the Homer City Mine, where MSHA charged two violations of the methane-control standard at 30 C.F.R. § 75.308. Judge Roy J. Maurer found that methane in number five entry reached 1.7 to 1.9 percent and that the foreman knew about it, but failed to de-energize the…

May 30, 1986 ·Roy J. Maurer ·FMSHRC
Mixed result
ALJ

Stoney Fork Coal Company

Settlement approved for $330

Stoney Fork Coal Company agreed to settle eight alleged violations at the Stoney No. 1 Mine. Judge Joseph B. Kennedy independently reviewed the proposed settlement and found it consistent with the purposes and policy of the Mine Act. He approved the settlement for $330 and ordered payment by June…

May 30, 1986 ·Joseph B. Kennedy ·FMSHRC
Settled
ALJ

Austin Power, Incorporated

Motion to amend citation granted

The Secretary sought to amend Citation No. 2339413 to allege, in the alternative, violations of 30 C.F.R. § 77.205(e) or § 77.404(a). Austin Power objected, arguing that the request was untimely and would prejudice its trial preparation. Judge George A. Koutras found that the factual basis for the…

May 29, 1986 ·George A. Koutras ·FMSHRC
Procedural
COMM

Secretary of Labor o/b/o Clarke v. T.P. Mining, Inc.

Motion for reconsideration denied

The Commission had previously found that Administrative Law Judge Joseph B. Kennedy and counsel for T.P. Mining engaged in a prohibited ex parte communication during a discrimination proceeding. Judge Kennedy moved for reconsideration, arguing that he lacked notice of the specific allegations and…

May 27, 1986 ·FMSHRC
Procedural
COMM

UMWA o/b/o Rowe v. Peabody Coal Company

Motion for reconsideration denied

The Commission had previously found that Administrative Law Judge Joseph B. Kennedy engaged in a prohibited ex parte communication, verbally abused attorneys, and commented publicly on a pending proceeding. Judge Kennedy moved for reconsideration, arguing that the Commission denied him due process…

May 27, 1986 ·FMSHRC
Procedural
COMM

Pontiki Coal Corporation

Settlement approval affirmed and unsupported comments struck

Pontiki Coal settled four contested violations arising from accumulations and equipment conditions at its Mine Number Two, with a total penalty of $7,500. The Commission held that the Administrative Law Judge went beyond the limited settlement record by making unsupported comments about advance…

May 27, 1986 ·FMSHRC
Modified
ALJ

Allstate Erectors, Inc.

Footwear citation and withdrawal order affirmed

Allstate Erectors was an independent contractor performing work at the Dallas Quarry and Plant, where employees were fabricating a handrail and handling other heavy materials. An inspector cited the company after a welder was observed wearing soft-toed leather shoes in an area where falling or…

May 23, 1986 ·James A. Broderick ·FMSHRC
Citations affirmed

What these documents are

  • The agencies: Workplace-safety cases from the Occupational Safety and Health Review Commission (OSHRC), mine-safety cases from the Federal Mine Safety and Health Review Commission (FMSHRC), and environmental permit and penalty appeals from the EPA's Environmental Appeals Board (EAB). Each decision page names its agency.
  • Commission and Board decisions: Rulings by the agency's highest review level (the Commission at OSHRC and FMSHRC, the Environmental Appeals Board at EPA). These are citable as precedent, though a decision may have been appealed to a U.S. Court of Appeals after issuance.
  • ALJ decisions: Rulings by the agency's Administrative Law Judges after a hearing. When no Commissioner directs review, an ALJ decision becomes a final order that binds the parties in that case but is not binding precedent: under 29 U.S.C. § 661(j) at OSHRC, and after the 40-day window of 30 U.S.C. § 823(d)(1) at FMSHRC.
  • Why finality matters: Every page here says which kind of decision you are reading, so you know whether it is precedent you can cite or a final order that only shows how one judge ruled on one set of facts.
  • Where they come from: Every page links the official public release from the deciding agency, and the full text on the page is that release. The plain-English summaries are written by Ezel.