Under the 2023 amendment to Virginia's judicial-misconduct disclosure statute, when does the Judicial Inquiry and Review Commission have to publicly name a judge it has investigated, and what counts as 'disciplinary action' that triggers naming?

Plain-English summary

The Judicial Inquiry and Review Commission (JIRC) is the constitutional body in Virginia that investigates complaints against judges. Until 2023, JIRC's annual report aggregated misconduct data without naming individual judges. The General Assembly changed that in 2023 with HB amendments codified in Va. Code § 17.1-905. Now, for any judge against whom JIRC has both (1) concluded a Canon of Judicial Conduct was breached and (2) taken disciplinary action, the annual report must name the judge, identify the specific Canons breached, and describe the disciplinary action taken.

The Chair and Vice Chair of JIRC asked Attorney General Jason Miyares to clarify two things: when does the naming requirement attach, and what counts as "disciplinary action"?

Miyares answered: the naming requirement is triggered only when both conditions are present (the breach conclusion and the disciplinary action). If JIRC concludes a Canon was breached but takes no disciplinary action, no naming. If JIRC takes some action but did not formally conclude a Canon was breached, no naming. The two conditions are conjunctive.

On the meaning of "disciplinary action," the AG drew an important distinction. Censure and removal are punitive sanctions, but only the Virginia Supreme Court can impose them, not JIRC. So those cannot be what the General Assembly meant by "disciplinary action" by JIRC. The legislature must have intended the term to capture some category of JIRC action, otherwise the 2023 amendment would be meaningless.

The AG read "disciplinary action" broadly to include three JIRC actions:
1. Filing a formal complaint with the Supreme Court of Virginia (the JIRC's most consequential step short of agreeing to a settlement).
2. Suspending the judge under § 17.1-911 (typically for probable cause that continued judicial duties pose a substantial and immediate threat to the administration of justice).
3. Entering a supervision agreement with the judge under JIRC Rule 15(A)(4) (a consent-based agreement under which the judge accepts terms and conditions designed to avoid future misconduct).

He also noted that ordering an examination under § 17.1-912 (when there is probable cause to believe a judge is unable to perform duties because of substance use or physical or mental illness) would qualify as disciplinary action when intended for the same corrective purpose.

The opinion is heavy on canons of statutory construction: amendments are presumed to do something, the legislature is presumed to know existing law, "and" is conjunctive unless context demands otherwise, broader interpretations of "discipline" in employment-law cases support reading "disciplinary action" to include remedial as well as punitive measures.

What this means for you

If you are a member or staff attorney of JIRC

The annual report should now be drafted with the naming framework in mind. Build the report around three buckets: (1) cases concluded that a Canon was breached and a disciplinary action followed (judge named, Canon identified, action described), (2) cases concluded that a Canon was breached but no disciplinary action was taken (no naming), and (3) cases without a breach conclusion (no naming, regardless of any other action). Track these in your case management system as you process complaints.

For the 2023 annual report cycle, the AG's footnote 54 says the new disclosure applies only to cases where the breach conclusion was reached after the prior report (December 1, 2022) and the disciplinary action was taken on or after July 1, 2023. Don't apply the new rule retrospectively.

The opinion does not change the underlying confidentiality regime in § 17.1-913 outside the narrow naming exception. JIRC papers and proceedings remain confidential, with named-judge information becoming public only through the annual report or once a formal complaint is filed with the Supreme Court (which under § 17.1-913 loses its confidential character).

If you are a Virginia judge under JIRC investigation

Three categories of JIRC action will produce public naming if also paired with a Canon breach conclusion: a formal complaint to the Supreme Court, a suspension order, and a supervision agreement. Conversely, a JIRC determination that the charges are well-founded but not serious enough for any of those three actions (a Rule 15(A)(3) docket removal that operates as a warning) does not trigger naming, because it is not "disciplinary action" within the meaning the AG identified.

Strategically, this means a supervision-agreement consent under Rule 15(A)(4) now carries reputational consequences in addition to its remedial effect. Judges weighing whether to consent to such an agreement should factor in the certainty of public naming once the agreement is paired with a breach finding. The trade-off is between consenting to remedial supervision (now publicly named) and forcing JIRC to file a formal complaint with the Supreme Court (also publicly named, with potential for a public hearing and the more serious sanctions of censure or removal). Counsel should walk through both paths.

If you are a complainant who filed a JIRC complaint

The 2023 amendments also changed § 17.1-913 to require JIRC to notify you of the final decision or action on your complaint within 30 days (2023 Va. Acts ch. 329). That notification right operates separately from the public naming rule. Even when JIRC dismisses your complaint or takes action that does not trigger annual-report naming, you are entitled to know what happened.

If you want public visibility into the outcome, monitor the JIRC annual report (published on or before December 1 each year). The report will only name judges who meet both prongs of the test. If your complaint led to a Canon breach finding plus one of the three qualifying disciplinary actions, the judge should appear in the report.

If you are a journalist or court watchdog

The annual report is now substantially more informative. Names of judges with breach conclusions plus disciplinary action will appear, along with the specific Canons breached. Cross-reference the report against any subsequent Supreme Court of Virginia public-hearing dockets to confirm whether a judge named for a "formal complaint" is moving to a public hearing.

Keep in mind that JIRC dispositions short of the three qualifying disciplinary actions remain confidential (Rule 15(A)(3) docket-removal warnings, dismissals, even cases where JIRC concluded the Canons were breached but did not take a qualifying action). The aggregate counts in the annual report still capture these but without naming.

If you are a judicial-ethics or appellate attorney

This opinion will guide JIRC practice for years and is itself persuasive authority on what § 17.1-905 requires. If you represent a judge, the practical question of whether to consent to a supervision agreement now has reputational weight you can quantify. If you represent a complainant, the opinion confirms that the legislature intentionally narrowed which JIRC actions trigger naming (formal complaint, suspension, supervision agreement) and excluded others (Rule 15(A)(3) warning, dismissals).

Common questions

Q: Who can be named in the annual report?
A: A judge can be named only if JIRC has both concluded that the judge breached the Canons of Judicial Conduct and taken disciplinary action because of that conclusion. The two conditions are conjunctive.

Q: What counts as "disciplinary action" under § 17.1-905?
A: Per the AG opinion, three JIRC actions qualify: (1) filing a formal complaint with the Supreme Court of Virginia, (2) suspending the judge under § 17.1-911, and (3) entering a supervision agreement with the judge under JIRC Rule 15(A)(4). An examination order under § 17.1-912 may also qualify when intended for the same corrective purpose.

Q: What if JIRC just dismisses the complaint?
A: A dismissal is not "disciplinary action," so no naming. The annual report still includes aggregate dismissal counts.

Q: What if JIRC concludes the Canons were breached but only issues a warning under Rule 15(A)(3)?
A: A warning that removes charges from the docket without further action does not constitute "disciplinary action" within the AG's framework. So no naming, even though the breach conclusion was reached.

Q: Are JIRC proceedings still confidential?
A: Generally yes, under § 17.1-913. The 2023 amendment created a narrow exception for the annual-report naming requirement. Once a formal complaint is filed with the Supreme Court of Virginia, the record loses its confidential character.

Q: Can JIRC censure or remove a judge?
A: No. Only the Virginia Supreme Court can impose censure or removal. JIRC investigates and either dismisses, takes informal disciplinary action (suspension, supervision agreement), or files a formal complaint with the Supreme Court for a public hearing.

Q: When do the new naming rules apply?
A: For the 2023 annual report, the new disclosure applies to cases where the breach conclusion was reached after December 1, 2022 (the prior report date) and the disciplinary action was taken on or after July 1, 2023. Going forward, all newly concluded cases that meet both conditions are subject to naming.

Background and statutory framework

Virginia's constitution (art. VI, § 10) creates the Judicial Inquiry and Review Commission and gives it the power to investigate charges that could lead to retirement, censure, or removal of a judge. Chapter 9 of Title 17.1 (§§ 17.1-901 to -919) and the JIRC's own rules implement that authority.

The investigation pipeline: a complaint is filed with JIRC (the form is publicly available). JIRC investigates. If charges are well-founded, JIRC has options. It can dismiss. It can take informal action (Rule 15(A)(3) warning, Rule 15(A)(4) supervision agreement, suspension under § 17.1-911, examination order under § 17.1-912). Or it can file a formal complaint with the Virginia Supreme Court (Rule 15(A) and § 17.1-902).

Once a formal complaint is filed, the Supreme Court conducts a public hearing and, on clear and convincing evidence, can censure or remove the judge. (Censure and removal are the only Supreme Court sanctions for misconduct.) Pre-1998, the constitution made all JIRC proceedings confidential. The 1998 amendment changed "shall be confidential" to "may be confidential as provided by the General Assembly," giving the legislature room to set the confidentiality line.

The General Assembly traditionally set that line at near-total confidentiality (§ 17.1-913). Before 2023, the JIRC annual report carried only aggregate numbers (total complaints, source breakdown, dismissed counts and reasons, breach-conclusion counts) but no judge names.

The 2023 amendments (chs. 700 and 329) made two changes: (1) the annual report must now name judges who meet the two-prong test, and (2) JIRC must notify each complainant of the final decision or action on their complaint within 30 days. The first change is the subject of this AG opinion. The second is described in a footnote but is operationally important too: complainants now get individualized closure even when their case does not surface in the annual report.

The AG opinion's central interpretive move is to read "disciplinary action" by JIRC broadly enough to do real work, given that the punitive sanctions (censure, removal) are reserved to the Supreme Court. He drew on his own 2023 opinion construing the same term in § 23.1-808 (higher-education sexual-violence reporting) and on case-law definitions of "discipline" in the employment context. The result is a list of three categories (formal complaint to Supreme Court, suspension, supervision agreement) that capture the substantive remedial actions JIRC actually has authority to take.

Citations and references

Constitutional and statutory provisions:
- Va. Const. art. VI, § 10 (JIRC)
- § 17.1-905, Va. Code Ann. (annual report and naming requirement)
- § 17.1-911, Va. Code Ann. (suspension)
- § 17.1-913, Va. Code Ann. (confidentiality)
- JIRC Rules

Cases:
- Jud. Inquiry & Rev. Comm'n v. Elliott, 272 Va. 97 (2006) (JIRC formal complaint authority is permissive; Rule 15(A)(4) supervision agreement structure)
- Jud. Inquiry & Rev. Comm'n v. Pomrenke, 294 Va. 401 (2017) (Supreme Court holds ultimate responsibility for judicial discipline)
- In re Bennett, 301 Va. 68 (2022) (General Assembly draws confidentiality line)

Source

• Landing page: https://www.oag.state.va.us/annual-reports-opinions/official-opinions
• Original PDF: https://www.oag.state.va.us/files/Opinions/2023/23-056-Franklin-&-Melvin-issued.pdf

Original opinion text

Best-effort transcription from a scanned PDF. Minor errors may remain, the linked PDF is authoritative.

COMMONWEALTH of VIRGINIA

Office of the Attorney General

Jason S. Miyares
Attorney General

202 North Ninth Street
Richmond, Virginia 23219
804-786-2071
Fax 804-786-1991
Virginia Relay Services
800-828-1120
7-1-1

November 20, 2023

Humes J. Franklin, III, Esquire, Chairman
The Honorable Kenneth R. Melvin, Vice Chairman
Judicial Inquiry and Review Commission
Post Office Box 367
Richmond, Virginia 23218

Dear Mr. Franklin and Judge Melvin:

I am responding to your request for an official advisory opinion in accordance with § 2.2-505 of the Code of Virginia.

Issue Presented

You inquire regarding a recent amendment to the annual reporting requirements of the Judicial Inquiry and Review Commission ("JIRC" or "Commission"), as set forth in Virginia Code § 17.1-905. You more specifically ask under what circumstances the Commission must disclose the name of a judge who is the subject of a complaint filed with the Commission. Implicit in your inquiry is what constitutes "disciplinary action" for purposes of the statute.

Response

It is my opinion that the Commission must report the name of a subject judge when, and only when, both of two conditions are met: 1) the JIRC has concluded that the judge breached the Canons of Judicial Conduct and 2) it has taken disciplinary action against the judge based on its conclusion. It is further my opinion that the Commission takes "disciplinary action" as contemplated by amended Code § 17.1-905 when it does any of the following: files a formal complaint with the Supreme Court of Virginia, suspends a judge, or enters into a supervision agreement with a judge.

Applicable Law and Discussion

As required by the Constitution of Virginia, the General Assembly has created the Judicial Inquiry and Review Commission and vested it "with the power to investigate charges which would be the basis for retirement, censure, or removal of a judge." Article VI, § 10 of the Constitution; Chapter 9 of Title 17.1 of the Code of Virginia; and JIRC Rules govern JIRC procedures.

Charges alleging judicial misconduct can be reported to the JIRC for investigation by filing a prescribed complaint form with the Commission. Upon receipt of such a complaint, the JIRC has the duty "to investigate charges arising out of the present or any prior term of office which would be the basis for retirement, censure, or removal of a judge . . . ." In fulfilling its duty, JIRC is empowered "to conduct hearings and to subpoena witnesses and documents." Once the JIRC completes its investigation, if it "finds the charges to be well-founded, it may file a formal complaint before the Supreme Court [of Virginia]."

The Supreme Court is then directed to "conduct a hearing in open court . . . ." Should the Supreme Court find a "disability which is or is likely to be permanent and which seriously interferes with the performance by the judge of his duties, [the Court] shall retire the judge from office." In addition, should the hearing reveal that "the judge has engaged in misconduct while in office, or that he has persistently failed to perform the duties of his office, or that he has engaged in conduct prejudicial to the proper administration of justice, [the Supreme Court] shall censure him or shall remove him from office." The Supreme Court, in exercising its original jurisdiction in such cases, "considers the evidence and makes factual determinations de novo." Censure and removal are the only sanctions for misconduct the Court may impose, and neither is available without clear and convincing evidence supporting the charges alleged in the formal complaint.

Although the hearing before the Supreme Court is required to be public, the "[p]roceedings and documents before the Commission may be confidential as provided by the General Assembly in general law." The General Assembly, in turn, has provided that

all papers filed with and proceedings before the Commission, . . . including the identification of the subject judge as well as all testimony and other evidence and any transcript thereof made by a reporter, shall be confidential and shall not be divulged, other than to the Commission, by any person who (i) either files a complaint with the Commission, or receives such complaint in an official capacity; (ii) investigates such complaint; (iii) is interviewed concerning such complaint by a member, employee or agent of the Commission; or (iv) participates in any proceeding of the Commission or in the official recording or transcription thereof.

In addition, "[t]he filing of papers with and the giving of testimony before the Commission shall be privileged . . . ." Accordingly, as noted by the Supreme Court of Virginia, "[t]he General Assembly, as the policymaking branch of our government, has determined that[, generally, JIRC] records should be kept confidential."

Despite these confidentiality rules, the JIRC is subject to certain mandatory disclosure provisions. Pertinent to your inquiry, Code § 17.1-905 directs that "the Commission shall publish a report detailing the activities of the Commission for the prior year." The statute expressly identifies information that the JIRC's annual report must contain. Prior to a 2023 amendment, such information was limited, in pertinent part, to the following: 1) the total number of complaints filed with the Commission; 2) the respective number of complaints originating from attorneys, judges, court employees, and the general public; and 3) the number of complaints dismissed. In reporting the number of dismissed complaints, the JIRC also is required to specify the number of dismissals that were "based on (i) failure to fall within the jurisdiction of the Commission, (ii) failure to state a violation of the Canons of Judicial Conduct, or (iii) failure of the Commission to reach a conclusion that the Canons were breached[.]" Also specifically required to be contained in the report is "the number of complaints for which the Commission concluded that the Canons of Judicial Conduct were breached[.]"

The General Assembly amended Code § 17.1-905 in 2023 to require the reporting of additional information. Per the amendment, the JIRC's annual report also must include "the name of any judge who the Commission concluded breached the Canons of Judicial Conduct and took disciplinary action against as a result of such conclusion[.]" For any such named judge, the JIRC is directed further to report "(b) the specific Canons of Judicial Conduct breached by such judge; and (c) the disciplinary action taken against such judge by the Commission." The amendment thus provides a clear exemption to the more general rule against divulging "the identification of [a] subject judge[.]" Nevertheless, the name disclosure is required only to the extent the JIRC 1) has concluded that the judge breached the Canons of Judicial Conduct and 2) has taken disciplinary action against the judge based on its conclusion. If either element is missing, then the new reporting requirement does not apply.

Virginia law makes clear that "[t]he ultimate responsibility . . . for judicial discipline lies squarely with [the Supreme Court]." Although it thus generally is recognized that "the Commission's function is limited to determining whether 'the charges [are] well-founded, and sufficient to constitute the basis for retirement, censure, or removal of a judge,' thereby resulting in a complaint being filed in th[e Supreme] Court[,]" the JIRC is authorized to take other actions with respect to matters coming before it that fall short of filing a formal complaint.

For example, "the Commission may suspend a judge with pay if it finds that there is probable cause to believe that the continued performance of judicial duties by the judge constitutes both a substantial and immediate threat to the public interest in the administration of justice." In addition, "[w]henever the Commission has probable cause to believe a judge is unable to perform his duties . . . because of excessive use of alcohol or drugs or physical or mental illness, the Commission, . . . may direct that the judge submit to a mental or physical examination by a health care provider . . . ."

Moreover, pursuant to JIRC Rule 15, the Commission, "[a]fter an investigation has been concluded, . . . may take any of [several] actions" that are in addition to dismissing the charges or filing a formal complaint. A "third option, [Rule] 15(A)(3), permits the Commission to remove from its docket charges that it determines are well founded, but not by themselves serious enough to warrant disciplinary action . . . . Such a disposition provides a warning to a judge and the opportunity to avoid future misconduct." "[Rule] 15(A)(4)[] permits the Commission, when it finds the charges to be well founded and with the consent of the judge, to place the judge on a period of supervision under such terms and conditions as the Commission shall determine." This fourth option "affords the judge the benefit of a period of supervision to avoid future misconduct and also to avoid some of the consequences of his past misconduct, including censure or removal."

With this backdrop, you ask under what circumstances the new requirement to report the name of the judge attaches. You express concern that the new statutory language may cause confusion given that "[t]he ultimate responsibility . . . for judicial discipline lies squarely" with the Supreme Court, where the only sanctions available are censure and removal.

I first note that "[s]tatutory amendments are presumed to amend statutes, to change something that was there or to add something that was not there before." Therefore "we assume that the General Assembly's amendments to a statute are purposeful, rather than unnecessary." In addition, "[w]hen new provisions are added to existing legislation by amendment, we presume that, in making such amendment, the legislature 'acted with full knowledge of and in reference to the existing law upon the same subject and the construction placed upon it by the courts.'" Accordingly, "in construing a statute that has been amended by the General Assembly, we presume that the legislature acted with full knowledge of the law as it affected the subject matter." Constructions that render statutory amendments meaningless are to be avoided, and we construe "all statutes in pari materia in such a manner as to reconcile, if possible, any discordant feature which may exist, and make the body of the laws harmonious."

The crux of your inquiry thus is what JIRC actions constitute "disciplinary action" for purposes of Code § 17.1-905. Clearly the term cannot refer to the punitive sanctions of censure or removal: the reporting requirement expressly relates only to actions taken by the Commission, but those sanctions are available exclusively to the Supreme Court. Accordingly, although judicial discipline ultimately is reserved to the Supreme Court, the General Assembly must consider some JIRC actions to be "disciplinary" in nature, otherwise the 2023 amendment would be meaningless. The General Assembly, however, has not defined "disciplinary action" for purposes of the statute.

In the absence of a statutory definition, words are to be construed according to their ordinary meaning, given the context in which they are used. A recent Opinion of this Office addressed the meaning of "disciplinary action" for purposes of Code § 23.1-808. Relying on common definitions of "discipline," the Opinion concluded that the term, standing alone, "is not limited only to action that is punitive in nature," so that "a reasonable interpretation of 'disciplinary action' . . . includes remedial action that is intended to correct or train . . . ." The Opinion further noted the "broad view" some judicial decisions have adopted in applying "discipline" and "disciplinary action" in the employment context. The Opinion highlighted one case decision that deemed an action that "was 'designed to establish . . . prescribed conduct[,]' 'reaffirm[ed] a rule or system of rules governing conduct[,]' and sought 'to control . . . situations in the future' to be disciplinary in nature.

Given the exclusive ability of the Supreme Court to punitively sanction judges and the limited role the JIRC maintains, application of this accepted, broader understanding of "discipline" is appropriate here. I first reemphasize, however, that the new reporting requirement only applies to situations in which the JIRC first has concluded that a judge has breached the Canons of Judicial Conduct. The JIRC is obliged already to report the number of complaints resulting in such a conclusion, and it has done so. As amended, Code § 17.1-905 now requires the JIRC to report the name of the judge associated with the conclusion when it also "took disciplinary action against [the judge] as a result of such conclusion[.]" Pursuing formal disciplinary proceedings by filing a formal complaint with the Supreme Court easily falls within the above-described rubric of "disciplinary action." Suspensions and supervision agreements are clearly remedial measures designed to "correct or train" and to "reaffirm" a "system of rules governing conduct," namely the Canons of Judicial Conduct. By taking such actions, the JIRC also seeks "to control . . . situations in the future." I therefore conclude that suspensions and supervision agreements are forms of "informal discipline" the Commission undertakes, and as such, are acts that constitute "disciplinary actions" for purposes of Code § 17.1-905.

Conclusion

For the foregoing reasons, it is my opinion that the Commission must implement Code § 17.1-905's new annual reporting requirements, including the naming of a subject judge, when and only when, both of two conditions are met: 1) the JIRC has concluded that the judge breached the Canons of Judicial Conduct and 2) it has taken disciplinary action based on its conclusion. It is further my opinion that the Commission takes "disciplinary action" as contemplated by the statute's amendment when it files a formal complaint with the Supreme Court of Virginia, suspends a judge, or enters into a supervision agreement with a judge.

With kindest regards, I am,

Very truly yours,

Jason S. Miyares
Attorney General